In The Discussion: Translation Approaches for Various Purposes
A quick message:
Hello, fellow translators!
September is the celebration of the International Translation Day. The date of the celebration marks the feast of St. Jerome, the patron saint of translators.
As part of the commemoration of this remarkable momentum, Linguwiz brings a special discussion about numerous translation approaches for the variety of purposes. We consider this discussion is essential, as there are a number of techniques paramount to be explored by translators and readers of our site; and we have wrapped them up conveniently.
Broaden your horizon in the realm of translation and all its related things with us. Here is the article of the month.
Happy reading! Happy International Translation Day!
Translators are language experts who often specialize in a specific field, such as law or medicine. However, they not only need to possess knowledge but also need to have a well-developed translation methodology. A professional translator must understand the best method or approach they will use in translating something.
Etymologically, the word translation is a derivative of the word translated which is absorption from the Arabic language ‘tarjamah’, which means to move or divert, and the word translation is called ‘translation’ in English.
Meanwhile, according to linguistic expert David Crystal, translation is a neutral term that refers to the activity of changing the meaning of expressions in the source language into another language, while Newmark, in his book entitled A Textbook of Translation (1988), stated that translation is the transfer of a text meaning from one language to another according to the author’s intention.
So, translation is when someone transfers the meaning of a written text from one language to another, while the translator is someone who chooses a method for the whole text, from several techniques that can be used for individual words and phrases. By carefully choosing the right technique, the translator can convey each linguistic element most accurately.
Types of Translation
There are several types of translation grouped by experts. The types of translation such as types of translation based on linguistic aspects, based on translation purpose, and based on the media used.
- Translation Based on Linguistic Aspects
Based on the linguistic aspect, Jacobson (1959) divided translation into three, named intralingual translation, interlingual translation, and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation is the process of translating from one verbal language to another in the same language; interlingual translation is the translation of verbal language from one language to another; and intersemiotic translation is the process of transferring language from verbal language to nonverbal languages, such as sign language.
- Translation Based Translation Purpose
In this type, Brislin (1976, 3-4) divided translation into four types based on Casagrande’s formulation, named pragmatic, aesthetic-poetic, ethnographic, and linguistic.
- Pragmatic translation emphasizes the accuracy of the message or information and makes the message from the source language must be explained correctly.
- Aesthetic-poetic translation prioritizes the aesthetic concept of the source language, including emotions, feelings, and feelings.
- Ethnographic translation prioritizes the cultural context that makes the translator must understand the culture of the source and target languages.
- Linguistic translation prioritizes the equivalent meaning and grammar of the source language into the target language.
- Translation-Based Media Used
Some translator experts divided translation into two types based on the media used, named written and oral translation. In English, written translation is called translation, while oral translation is called interpretation or interpreting. The person who does the oral translation is called the interpreter.
Translation Methods or Approaches
In translating something, there are various types of approaches or methods that are chosen by the translator in carrying out their duties. According to Peter Newmark, translation methods refer to activities on an entire document.
On the other hand, translation procedures apply to smaller units such as sentences. Choosing the appropriate method facilitates the translation process to make the content conveys the right meaning in the target culture appropriately.
Newmark also divided translation methods or approaches into two groups, named source-oriented translation methods and target language-oriented translation methods.
- Source-oriented Translation Methods
- Word-for-word translation
Word-for-word translation usually doesn’t take into account grammatical, semantic, or cultural differences between languages, and will remain in the original word order. Typically, this translation method does not render quality translations, although the reader should note that word-for-word works well on documents like medical research reports.
This method is not suitable for translating texts containing cultural terms because this method will translate the terms literally, but is suitable for use if the source language and target language have the same structure, and can be used at the pre-translation stage to understand difficult texts.
- Literal Translation
Literal translation refers to a method to render text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. In this method, words are translated without paying attention to the connotations. Literal translation focuses on context and strives to find metaphorical equivalents in the target language, and can only be used for certain structures between certain languages.
The literal translation is usually used to translate cultural terms which include, ecology, artifacts, social culture, organizations, customs, activities, procedures, and concepts, as well as politics and governance. In translating these cultural terms, the translator must adhere to the intent and purpose of the author.
- Faithful Translation
This method tries to maintain the form or format of the source language but has tried to form contextual meaning. Faithfull translation will create a precise translation while sticking closely to the original’s syntax and grammatical structure. This method is suitable for texts that have a faithful form and format to the source language, such as legal texts, but is not suitable for translating children’s stories because it will result in a rigid translation and not suitable for the target culture.
- Semantic Translation
According to Newmark (1998), this method pays attention to the aesthetic value of the source text to produce a translated text that looks beautiful and natural. Semantic translation is also a more flexible method, gives the translator more freedom for creativity, and also compromises on the level of meaning. In this method, the translator strives to convey the syntactic and semantic structures of the source language in the target language.
Semantic translation is the closest method that reproduces the original text in a foreign language while maintaining context and culture. Similarly, semantic translation closely relates to faithful translation, but it pays even closer attention to how the target language text looks.
- Target Language-Oriented Translation Methods
- Adaptations
This method is opposed to the word-for-word translation method. The adaptation method is oriented to the target language and emphasizes the message to be conveyed. The adaptation method uses modification or even total rewriting of source text language to find equivalents in the target language while conveying the same message as the original content.
Often referred to as transcreation, specialized linguists can assist when presenting messaging or ideas differently from the source content to the intended public. This method is usually used to adapt a drama or comedy.
- Free Translation
Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax and style of the original text. Although it also emphasizes the message to be conveyed, free translation does not replace the source language culture with the target language culture. This method only emphasizes the message of the source text but does not pay attention to the form and aesthetics of the translated text, which makes this method not suitable for translating poetry.
Usually, free translation is in the form of a paraphrase which can be longer or shorter than the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by the literal translation approach.
- Idiomatic Translation
This method reproduces the original text message by specifically utilizing the target language’s idioms and colloquialisms, and will create segments that look different and could not be translated directly but still have a very similar meaning. This method tends to distort the nuances of meaning if the source text uses idioms that are not found in the target language, and made these idiomatic expressions are usually translated like ordinary expressions.
- Communicative Translation
This method tries to reproduce the contextual meaning of the source language to make the linguistic and content aspects easily understood by readers in the target language. If free translation focuses on meaning without making adjustments to the target culture, the communicative translation method still presents elements of the source culture even though it is not bound.
Translation Techniques
In addition to the translation methods or approaches that have been discussed, in translation, there are also translation techniques which are generally divided into two, named direct translation techniques and oblique translation techniques.
Direct translation techniques can be used when the elements of the text being translated are similar in both the source and target languages. These elements, such as grammar and sentence structure, or particular concepts about the languages, can be transposed from one language to another.
Meanwhile, oblique translation techniques are applicable when the former is impossible when the meaning must be changed slightly, or the grammar and style of the text must be played with to translate it.
Three types of translation are included in direct translation techniques. Those are literal translations, that have been explained earlier; borrowing; and calque.
- Borrowing is simply one language taking words directly from another and using them as its own. One of the biggest offenders of borrowing words from other languages is English, which continues to take in new words. Some languages, like French, remain more resistant to borrowing, instead preferring their equivalents. However, most languages could easily find examples of borrowed words in daily use.
- Calque is slightly different from the borrowing techniques. While it starts with a word borrowed from another language, this technique also translates the word into the target language. Yet translators must be careful with calques, cause several calques can be straightforward to understand, while others become confusing with unintended and often humorous consequences. Calques are often context-specific, with calque terms common in legal documents being very unfamiliar to regular people.
Meanwhile, there are other five types of translation included in oblique translation techniques, which are transposition, modulation, reformulation or equivalence, adaptation, and compensation.
- Transposition changes the word order in a phrase or a sentence and focuses on the different rules about an adjective, noun, and verb position in a sentence in each language. Transposition also ensures that the words in the target language are in a new, correct order, and the meaning of the phrase mostly remains the same.
- Modulation uses a phrase in the target language that isn’t the same as the source language but expresses the same meaning. Modulation aims to find the more appropriate phrase and use it accordingly to prevent possible confusion and make the translation feel more natural.
- Reformulation or equivalence finds more creative ways for expressing the same meaning in completely different ways between the source and target language, and it can often be found in creative fields, such as marketing and advertising.
- Adaptation adds a wider cultural context to the reformulation, and makes the idea being translated feel natural and easily understood by the speakers of the target language. Adaptation must find and choose the most appropriate cultural reference in this case.
- Compensation is a technique utilized when something cannot be translated into another language, whether it is a grammatical concept in the source language or a cultural construct that has no equivalent in the target language.
Although various translation methods exist, a quality translation can’t be obtained with any one singular method. The quality of a translation depends on the source and target language, audiences, culture, and semantics, which is crucial to combine different strategies to create a satisfying translation that will resonate with global audiences everywhere.
A translator can also choose which method to use, which depends on the audience design and need analysis that is oriented to the prospective reader or client to make the resulting translation is accurate and easily understood by readers.
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